Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR): "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."
A non-binding declaration, the UDHR was adopted by the UNGA in 1948 because of what happened during the Second World War and is the first truly global document pushing for human rights' protection. Although countries do not have to abide by the declaration legally, most recognize the UDHR as customary law and thus act according (with exceptions of course). The text of the UDHR can be found here.
These are some of the many rights protected in the UDHR:
- the right to life (Art. 3)
- the right to liberty (Art. 3)
- the right to security of person (Art. 3)
- the right to recognition everywhere as a person of the law (Art. 6)
- the right to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal (Art. 10)
- the right to a nationality (Art. 15)
- the right to own property (Art. 17)
- the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion (Art. 18)
- the right to work (Art. 23)
- the right to education (Art. 26)
...and it doesn't stop there. Know your human rights! The preceding video does an AMAZING job of explaining to you what these are and where they come from. Watch it!
Friday, April 2, 2010
Thursday, April 1, 2010
Saturday, March 6, 2010
FRONTLINE - The Age of Aids
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/aids/view/?utm_campaign=viewpage&utm_medium=grid&utm_source=grid
Friday, March 5, 2010
Thursday, March 4, 2010
Economic effects of HIV/AIDS
Time for a lesson from the other subject I teach, economics. To begin, every country has what is known as a production possibilities curve. A production possibilities curve (PPC) is a graphical representation of different rates of production of two goods and services (in this case, capital and consumer goods) that an economy can produce efficiently at a given time period, at a given level of technology and with finite factors of production (land, labor, capital and enterprise). Let's look at one.
In this PPC, point A represents a corresponding level of capital goods and consumer goods, whereas point E is currently unattainable given this country's current state of technology and store of factors of production. If the output increases to point B, there has been actual growth, and any point on the curve (C or D) would indicate the country is producing at its maximum level using all land, labor, capital and enterprise contained therein. A shift out in the PPC illustrates economic growth, or the increase in the value of the goods and services produced in an economy over a given time period. This suggests an increase in the potential growth of the economy, and occurs when there is an increase in the quality and/or quantity of a country's factors of production.
How do factors of production relate to the HIV/AIDS epidemic? This disease kills the most productive workers in society, people from the ages of 15 to 49. This essentially obliterates labor as a factor of production through sheer reduction in numbers and diversion of attention of the uninfected away from work and towards child/elder (= dependent) care. Moreover, human capital, which is the education and training that makes people more productive workers, is also obviously repressed by countries with high HIV/AIDS adult infection rates. It's difficult to invest in workers' futures when they either have or are at significant risk of catching the disease. We could show these affects on the graph above by shifting the PPC inwards (a rare event) like we would with a major natural disaster (i.e. Haiti 2010) or war (Rwanda, 1994). Please watch Professor Emily Oster's economic explaining in the post above...it's great!
HIV and UNDP - Economic Effects of HIV (scholarly article)
In this PPC, point A represents a corresponding level of capital goods and consumer goods, whereas point E is currently unattainable given this country's current state of technology and store of factors of production. If the output increases to point B, there has been actual growth, and any point on the curve (C or D) would indicate the country is producing at its maximum level using all land, labor, capital and enterprise contained therein. A shift out in the PPC illustrates economic growth, or the increase in the value of the goods and services produced in an economy over a given time period. This suggests an increase in the potential growth of the economy, and occurs when there is an increase in the quality and/or quantity of a country's factors of production.
How do factors of production relate to the HIV/AIDS epidemic? This disease kills the most productive workers in society, people from the ages of 15 to 49. This essentially obliterates labor as a factor of production through sheer reduction in numbers and diversion of attention of the uninfected away from work and towards child/elder (= dependent) care. Moreover, human capital, which is the education and training that makes people more productive workers, is also obviously repressed by countries with high HIV/AIDS adult infection rates. It's difficult to invest in workers' futures when they either have or are at significant risk of catching the disease. We could show these affects on the graph above by shifting the PPC inwards (a rare event) like we would with a major natural disaster (i.e. Haiti 2010) or war (Rwanda, 1994). Please watch Professor Emily Oster's economic explaining in the post above...it's great!
HIV and UNDP - Economic Effects of HIV (scholarly article)
Wednesday, March 3, 2010
All about HIV/AIDS as an illness
HIV is transferred through unprotected sexual intercourse (semen, vaginal fluids, pre-ejaculate); drug use or transfusion contamination (blood); or from mother-to-child (blood, milk). HIV is NOT transferred through hugging or kissing, sharing a cup or sitting on a toilet seat. It is critical to understand legitimate risks of transmission and to reject non-legitimate suggestions.
From Wikipedia: Estimated per-act risk for acquisition of HIV by exposure route (***note that risk rates may change due to other factors such as commercial sex exposure, phase of HIV infection, presence or history of genital ulcers, and national income levels.)
Exposure Route Estimated infections per 10,000
exposures to an infected source
Blood transfusion 9,000
Child birth 2,500
Needle-sharing 67
injection drug use
Percutaneous needle 30
stick
Receptive anal 170 ("best guess")
intercourse (2010) 143 (no condom)
Insertive anal 62 (uncircumsized)
intercourse (2010) 11 (circumsized)
Low-income country 38 ("best guess")
female-to-male
Low-income country 30 ("best guess")
male-to-female
Receptive penile- 10
vaginal intercourse
Insertive penile- 5
vaginal intercourse
Receptive oral 1
intercourse
Insertive oral 0.5
intercourse
Where did HIV/AIDS originate?
Although some alternative theories exist, the most widely accepted view of the origin of HIV/AIDS is transfer from primates to humans in the late 19th/early 20th century in sub-Saharan central Africa. Please read the following article (bolding added by me) to understand this predominate view.
ARTICLE - HIV origin 'found in wild chimps' from the BBC - 25 May 2006
The origin of HIV has been found in wild chimpanzees living in southern Cameroon, researchers report.
A virus called SIVcpz (Simian Immunodeficiency Virus from chimps) was thought to be the source, but had only been found in a few captive animals.
Now, an international team of scientists has identified a natural reservoir of SIVcpz in animals living in the wild.
The findings are to be published in Science magazine.
It is thought that people hunting chimpanzees first contracted the virus - and that cases were first seen in Kinshasa, in the Democratic Republic of Congo - the nearest urban area - in 1930.
Scientists believe the rareness of cases - and the fact that symptoms of Aids differ significantly between individuals - explains why it was another 50 years before the virus was named.
This team of researchers, including experts from the universities of Nottingham, Montpellier and Alabama, have been working for a decade to identify the source of HIV.
While SIVcpz was only identified in captive animals, the possibility remained that yet another species could be the natural reservoir of both HIV and SIVcpz.
Gene tests
It had only been possible to detect SIVcpz using blood test - which meant that only captive animals could be studied.
This study, carried out alongside experts from the Project Prevention du Sida au Cameroun (PRESICA) in Cameroon, involved analysing chimpanzee faeces, collected from the forest floor in remote jungle areas.
This was useful because University of Alabama at Birmingham researchers had been able to determine the genetic sequences of the chimpanzee viruses - which could then be searched for in the faecal samples.
Lab tests detected SIVcpz specific antibodies and genetic information linked to the virus in up to 35% of chimpanzees in some groups.
All of the data were then sent to the University of Nottingham for analysis, which revealed the extremely close genetic relationship between some of the samples and strains of HIV.
Chimpanzees in south-east Cameroon were found to have the viruses most similar to the form of HIV that has spread throughout the world.
The researchers say that, as well as solving the mystery about the origin of the virus, the findings open up avenues for future research.
But SIVcpz has not been found to cause any Aids-like illnesses in chimpanzees, so researchers are investigating why the animals do not suffer any symptoms, when humans - who are so genetically similar - do.
Close relation
Paul Sharp, professor of genetics at the University of Nottingham said: "It is likely that the jump between chimps and humans occurred in south-east Cameroon - and that virus then spread across the world.
"When you consider that HIV probably originated more than 75 years ago, it is most unlikely that there are any viruses out there that will prove to be more closely related to the human virus."
He said the team were currently working to understand if the genetic differences between SIVcpz and HIV evolved as a response to the species jump.
Keith Alcorn of Aidsmap said: "The researchers have pinned down a very specific location where they believe the precursor of HIV came from.
"But there are vast areas of west Africa where other forms of SIVcpz lineages exist, and the possibility remains for human infection.
Yusef Azad, policy director of the National Aids Trust said: "This research is interesting as all discoveries which relate to the history and origins of HIV could be of value to the vital work being carried out by scientists in developing a HIV vaccine."
According to Merriam-Webster online, zoonosis is "a disease communicable from animals to humans under natural conditions" like HIV coming from mutated primate SIV. For this to occur, six conditions must be met (citation - Wikipedia):
1. a human population;
2. a nearby population of a host animal;
3. an infectious pathogen in the host animal that can spread from animal to human;
4. interaction between the species to transmit enough of the pathogen to humans to establish a human foothold, which could have taken millions of individual exposures;
5. ability of the pathogen to spread from human to human (perhaps acquired by mutation);
6. some method allowing the pathogen to disperse widely, preventing the infection from "burning out" by either killing off its human hosts or provoking immunity in a local population of humans.
These condition were met for the SIV jump to humans (HIV) and also explains new animal-to-human illness like H1N1 and avian flu.
Treatment for HIV/AIDS -
One of the world's preeminent hospitals, the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota, U.S.A. provides information on diseases including HIV/AIDS. Regarding treatment of HIV/AIDS, their web sites says:
"According to current guidelines, treatment should focus on achieving the maximum suppression of symptoms for as long as possible. This aggressive approach is known as highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART). The aim of HAART is to reduce the amount of virus in [the] blood to very low or even nondetectable levels, although this doesn't mean the virus is gone. This is usually accomplished with a combination of three or more drugs."
HAART (video here) is a combination of antiretroviral drugs given at different levels and doses depending on the specific needs of the patient. Although some people in MEDCs have difficulty affording such treatment (i.e. health care debate in the U.S.), the vast majority of infected individuals in LEDCs do not have access to this truly beneficial treatment which has extended and improved the lives of many since the end of the 1990s. Getting drugs to those without access physically or financially is a significant goal/challenge of UNAIDS and the UN in general.Video - occupational PEP
Tuesday, March 2, 2010
Infectious Diseases and Initial Application of MDGs
To better understand the workings of the Millennium Development Goals, we will start an initial examination and evaluation with reference to the MDG framework to the problem of infectious diseases (specifically HIV/AIDS).
What is an infectious disease?
An infectious disease is an illness infected plants, animals and humans from a pathogenic agent like bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, and protozoa. Transmission of infectious diseases may occur in several ways, including through insect bites (i.e. malarial mosquitoes), bodily fluids (HIV, hepatitis), food and water (i.e. many diarrheal diseases, e. coli in ground meat) and contaminated surfaces (i.e. noroviruses on cruise ships).
What are the most deadly infectious diseases?
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), in 2002, the five most deadly infectious diseases were lower respiratory diseases like pneumonia and influenzas (3.9 million), HIV/AIDS (2.8 million), diarrheal diseases caused by bacteria like cholera and e. coli (1.8 million), tuberculosis - TB (1.6 million), and malaria (1.3 million).
Why does it seem that HIV/AIDS and, to a lesser extent, malaria are discussed far more frequently than these other microbial killers?
There is not a straight-forward, universally-accepted answer to this question. Simply stated, the pathogens that cause lower respiratory diseases, diarrheal diseases and tuberculosis thrive in areas with poverty and underdevelopment (specific connection to poor health care, infrastructure and education regarding transmission). Furthermore, in MEDCs, the latter two have essentially been eradicated in the former doesn't lead to many deaths which, unfortunately, leads to less discussion of these diseases.
HIV/AIDS, a "new" epidemic in the course of human epidemiology, exists in rich and poor country alike, affecting men, women, children of every race, religion and socioeconomic position. Moreover, the means of transmission (specifically the sexual route) can be, culturally and religiously, a very difficult subject which leads to a stigmatization of the disease not seen with the other infections. Lastly, its wildfire-like spread through and subsequent humanistic and economic attack on sub-Saharan Africa in the late 1990s to today has brought much attention to HIV/AIDS awareness and prevention. These are a few major reasons why HIV/AIDS has become a focal point of international discussion, but certainly is not an exhaustive list.
As for malaria, the pathogen which is transmitted from mosquito to human follows the same sort of pattern described above for lower respiratory diseases, diarrheal diseases and tuberculosis. Perhaps the absolute cheapness of mosquito nets and other malaria prevention methods has led to "more" global attention to this infectious disease?!
What is the connection between MDG6 and infectious disease?
MDG6 reads:
GOAL 6: COMBAT HIV/AIDS, MALARIA AND OTHER DISEASES
Target 7. Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS
Indicators
18. HIV prevalence among pregnant women aged 15-24 years (UNAIDS-WHO-UNICEF)
19. Condom use rate of the contraceptive prevalence rate (UN Population Division)
19a. Condom use at last high-risk sex (UNICEF-WHO)
19b. Percentage of population aged 15-24 years with comprehensive correct knowledge of HIV/AIDS (UNICEF-WHO)
19c. Contraceptive prevalence rate (UN Population Division)
20. Ratio of school attendance of orphans to school attendance of non-orphans aged 10-14 years (UNICEF-UNAIDS-WHO)
Target 8. Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases
Indicators
21. Prevalence and death rates associated with malaria (WHO)
22. Proportion of population in malaria-risk areas using effective malaria prevention and treatment measures (UNICEF-WHO)
23. Prevalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis (WHO)
24. Proportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under DOTS (internationally recommended TB control strategy) (WHO)
Clearly, the world believes the prevention and eventual eradication of preventable diseases like HIV/AIDS and malaria is an important goal for humanity. MDG6 delineated the major goal, its two sub-targets and their measurable indicators (with the charged organization in parentheses). Look at and consider them!
Videos - infectious disease and modern transportation, infectious diseases caused by bacteria, understanding infectious diseases
What is an infectious disease?
An infectious disease is an illness infected plants, animals and humans from a pathogenic agent like bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, and protozoa. Transmission of infectious diseases may occur in several ways, including through insect bites (i.e. malarial mosquitoes), bodily fluids (HIV, hepatitis), food and water (i.e. many diarrheal diseases, e. coli in ground meat) and contaminated surfaces (i.e. noroviruses on cruise ships).
What are the most deadly infectious diseases?
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), in 2002, the five most deadly infectious diseases were lower respiratory diseases like pneumonia and influenzas (3.9 million), HIV/AIDS (2.8 million), diarrheal diseases caused by bacteria like cholera and e. coli (1.8 million), tuberculosis - TB (1.6 million), and malaria (1.3 million).
Why does it seem that HIV/AIDS and, to a lesser extent, malaria are discussed far more frequently than these other microbial killers?
There is not a straight-forward, universally-accepted answer to this question. Simply stated, the pathogens that cause lower respiratory diseases, diarrheal diseases and tuberculosis thrive in areas with poverty and underdevelopment (specific connection to poor health care, infrastructure and education regarding transmission). Furthermore, in MEDCs, the latter two have essentially been eradicated in the former doesn't lead to many deaths which, unfortunately, leads to less discussion of these diseases.
HIV/AIDS, a "new" epidemic in the course of human epidemiology, exists in rich and poor country alike, affecting men, women, children of every race, religion and socioeconomic position. Moreover, the means of transmission (specifically the sexual route) can be, culturally and religiously, a very difficult subject which leads to a stigmatization of the disease not seen with the other infections. Lastly, its wildfire-like spread through and subsequent humanistic and economic attack on sub-Saharan Africa in the late 1990s to today has brought much attention to HIV/AIDS awareness and prevention. These are a few major reasons why HIV/AIDS has become a focal point of international discussion, but certainly is not an exhaustive list.
As for malaria, the pathogen which is transmitted from mosquito to human follows the same sort of pattern described above for lower respiratory diseases, diarrheal diseases and tuberculosis. Perhaps the absolute cheapness of mosquito nets and other malaria prevention methods has led to "more" global attention to this infectious disease?!
What is the connection between MDG6 and infectious disease?
MDG6 reads:
GOAL 6: COMBAT HIV/AIDS, MALARIA AND OTHER DISEASES
Target 7. Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS
Indicators
18. HIV prevalence among pregnant women aged 15-24 years (UNAIDS-WHO-UNICEF)
19. Condom use rate of the contraceptive prevalence rate (UN Population Division)
19a. Condom use at last high-risk sex (UNICEF-WHO)
19b. Percentage of population aged 15-24 years with comprehensive correct knowledge of HIV/AIDS (UNICEF-WHO)
19c. Contraceptive prevalence rate (UN Population Division)
20. Ratio of school attendance of orphans to school attendance of non-orphans aged 10-14 years (UNICEF-UNAIDS-WHO)
Target 8. Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases
Indicators
21. Prevalence and death rates associated with malaria (WHO)
22. Proportion of population in malaria-risk areas using effective malaria prevention and treatment measures (UNICEF-WHO)
23. Prevalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis (WHO)
24. Proportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under DOTS (internationally recommended TB control strategy) (WHO)
Clearly, the world believes the prevention and eventual eradication of preventable diseases like HIV/AIDS and malaria is an important goal for humanity. MDG6 delineated the major goal, its two sub-targets and their measurable indicators (with the charged organization in parentheses). Look at and consider them!
Videos - infectious disease and modern transportation, infectious diseases caused by bacteria, understanding infectious diseases
Monday, March 1, 2010
UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
With eight goals, 18 targets and 48 measurable indicators, the UN Millennium Goals are "the world's time-bound and quantified targets for addressing extreme poverty in its many dimensions - income poverty, hunger, disease, lack of adequate shelter, and exclusion - while promoting gender equality, education, and environmental sustainability". Meant to be achieved by 2015 by the 192 UN Member-states with the assistance of 23 UN-affiliated organizations, the MDGs "are also basic human rights-the rights of each person on the planet to health, education, shelter, and security"(from the Millennium Project). Because of the urgency of the issues contained within this living document, it is important we examine and connect to the MDGs while studying international relations. The UN Millennium Development Goals, their targets and indicators are displayed below in full:
GOAL 1: ERADICATE EXTREME HUNGER AND POVERTY
Target 1. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than $1 a day
Indicators
1. Proportion of population below $1 (1993 PPP) per day (World Bank)
2. Poverty gap ratio [incidence x depth of poverty] (World Bank)
3. Share of poorest quintile in national consumption (World Bank)
Target 2. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger
Indicators
4. Prevalence of underweight children under five years of age (UNICEF-WHO)
5. Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption (FAO)
GOAL 2: ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION
Target 3. Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling
Indicators
6. Net enrolment ratio in primary education (UNESCO)
7. Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who reach grade 5 (UNESCO)
8. Literacy rate of 15-24 year-olds (UNESCO)
GOAL 3: PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER WOMEN
Target 4. Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and in all levels of education no later than 2015
Indicators
9. Ratio of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education (UNESCO)
10. Ratio of literate women to men, 15-24 years old (UNESCO)
11. Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector (ILO)
12. Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament (IPU)
GOAL 4: REDUCE CHILD MORTALITY
Target 5. Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate
Indicators
13. Under-five mortality rate (UNICEF-WHO)
14. Infant mortality rate (UNICEF-WHO)
15. Proportion of 1 year-old children immunized against measles (UNICEF-WHO)
GOAL 5: IMPROVE MATERNAL HEALTH
Target 6. Reduce by three-quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio
Indicators
16. Maternal mortality ratio (UNICEF-WHO)
17. Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel (UNICEF-WHO)
GOAL 6: COMBAT HIV/AIDS, MALARIA AND OTHER DISEASES
Target 7. Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS
Indicators
18. HIV prevalence among pregnant women aged 15-24 years (UNAIDS-WHO-UNICEF)
19. Condom use rate of the contraceptive prevalence rate (UN Population Division)
19a. Condom use at last high-risk sex (UNICEF-WHO)
19b. Percentage of population aged 15-24 years with comprehensive correct knowledge of HIV/AIDS (UNICEF-WHO)
19c. Contraceptive prevalence rate (UN Population Division)
20. Ratio of school attendance of orphans to school attendance of non-orphans aged 10-14 years (UNICEF-UNAIDS-WHO)
Target 8. Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases
Indicators
21. Prevalence and death rates associated with malaria (WHO)
22. Proportion of population in malaria-risk areas using effective malaria prevention and treatment measures (UNICEF-WHO)
23. Prevalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis (WHO)
24. Proportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under DOTS (internationally recommended TB control strategy) (WHO)
GOAL 7: ENSURE ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
Target 9. Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs and reverse the loss of environmental resources
Indicators
25. Proportion of land area covered by forest (FAO)
26. Ratio of area protected to maintain biological diversity to surface area (UNEP-WCMC)
27. Energy use (kg oil equivalent) per $1 GDP (PPP) (IEA, World Bank)
28. Carbon dioxide emissions per capita (UNFCCC, UNSD) and consumption of ozone-depleting CFCs (ODP tons) (UNEP-Ozone Secretariat)
29. Proportion of population using solid fuels (WHO)
Target 10. Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation
Indicators
30. Proportion of population with sustainable access to an improved water source, urban and rural (UNICEF-WHO)
31. Proportion of population with access to improved sanitation, urban and rural (UNICEF-WHO)
Target 11. Have achieved by 2020 a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers
Indicators
32. Proportion of households with access to secure tenure (UN-HABITAT)
GOAL 8: DEVELOP A GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP FOR DEVELOPMENT
Target 12. Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, nondiscriminatory trading and financial system (includes a commitment to good governance, development, and poverty reduction - both nationally and internationally)
Target 13. Address the special needs of the Least Developed Countries (includes tariff- and quota-free access for Least Developed Countries? exports, enhanced program of debt relief for heavily indebted poor countries [HIPCs] and cancellation of official bilateral debt, and more generous official development assistance for countries committed to poverty reduction)
Target 14. Address the special needs of landlocked developing countries and small island developing states (through the Program of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States and 22nd General Assembly provisions)
Target 15. Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing countries through national and international measures in order to make debt sustainable in the long term
Indicators
Official development assistance (ODA)
33. Net ODA, total and to LDCs, as percentage of OECD/Development Assistance Committee (DAC) donors' gross national income (GNI)(OECD)
34. Proportion of total bilateral, sector-allocable ODA of OECD/DAC donors to basic social services (basic education, primary health care, nutrition, safe water and sanitation) (OECD)
35. Proportion of bilateral ODA of OECD/DAC donors that is untied (OECD)
36. ODA received in landlocked developing countries as a proportion of their GNIs (OECD)
37. ODA received in small island developing States as proportion of their GNIs (OECD)
Market access
38. Proportion of total developed country imports (by value and excluding arms) from developing countries and from LDCs, admitted free of duty (UNCTAD, WTO, WB)
39. Average tariffs imposed by developed countries on agricultural products and textiles and clothing from developing countries (UNCTAD, WTO, WB)
40. Agricultural support estimate for OECD countries as percentage of their GDP (OECD)
41. Proportion of ODA provided to help build trade capacity (OECD, WTO)
Debt sustainability
42. Total number of countries that have reached their Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative (HIPC) decision points and number that have reached their HIPC completion points (cumulative) (IMF - World Bank)
43. Debt relief committed under HIPC initiative (IMF-World Bank)
44. Debt service as a percentage of exports of goods and services (IMF-World Bank)
Some of the indicators listed below are monitored separately for the least developed countries, Africa, landlocked developing countries, and small island developing states
Target 16. In cooperation with developing countries, develop and implement strategies for decent and productive work for youth
Indicators
45. Unemployment rate of young people aged 15-24 years, each sex and total (ILO)
Target 17. In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to affordable essential drugs in developing countries
Indicators
46. Proportion of population with access to affordable essential drugs on a sustainable basis (WHO)
Target 18. In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications technologies
Indicators
47. Telephone lines and cellular subscribers per 100 population (ITU)
48. Personal computers in use per 100 population and Internet users per 100 population (ITU)
GOAL 1: ERADICATE EXTREME HUNGER AND POVERTY
Target 1. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than $1 a day
Indicators
1. Proportion of population below $1 (1993 PPP) per day (World Bank)
2. Poverty gap ratio [incidence x depth of poverty] (World Bank)
3. Share of poorest quintile in national consumption (World Bank)
Target 2. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger
Indicators
4. Prevalence of underweight children under five years of age (UNICEF-WHO)
5. Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption (FAO)
GOAL 2: ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION
Target 3. Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling
Indicators
6. Net enrolment ratio in primary education (UNESCO)
7. Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who reach grade 5 (UNESCO)
8. Literacy rate of 15-24 year-olds (UNESCO)
GOAL 3: PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER WOMEN
Target 4. Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and in all levels of education no later than 2015
Indicators
9. Ratio of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education (UNESCO)
10. Ratio of literate women to men, 15-24 years old (UNESCO)
11. Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector (ILO)
12. Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament (IPU)
GOAL 4: REDUCE CHILD MORTALITY
Target 5. Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate
Indicators
13. Under-five mortality rate (UNICEF-WHO)
14. Infant mortality rate (UNICEF-WHO)
15. Proportion of 1 year-old children immunized against measles (UNICEF-WHO)
GOAL 5: IMPROVE MATERNAL HEALTH
Target 6. Reduce by three-quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio
Indicators
16. Maternal mortality ratio (UNICEF-WHO)
17. Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel (UNICEF-WHO)
GOAL 6: COMBAT HIV/AIDS, MALARIA AND OTHER DISEASES
Target 7. Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS
Indicators
18. HIV prevalence among pregnant women aged 15-24 years (UNAIDS-WHO-UNICEF)
19. Condom use rate of the contraceptive prevalence rate (UN Population Division)
19a. Condom use at last high-risk sex (UNICEF-WHO)
19b. Percentage of population aged 15-24 years with comprehensive correct knowledge of HIV/AIDS (UNICEF-WHO)
19c. Contraceptive prevalence rate (UN Population Division)
20. Ratio of school attendance of orphans to school attendance of non-orphans aged 10-14 years (UNICEF-UNAIDS-WHO)
Target 8. Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases
Indicators
21. Prevalence and death rates associated with malaria (WHO)
22. Proportion of population in malaria-risk areas using effective malaria prevention and treatment measures (UNICEF-WHO)
23. Prevalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis (WHO)
24. Proportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under DOTS (internationally recommended TB control strategy) (WHO)
GOAL 7: ENSURE ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
Target 9. Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs and reverse the loss of environmental resources
Indicators
25. Proportion of land area covered by forest (FAO)
26. Ratio of area protected to maintain biological diversity to surface area (UNEP-WCMC)
27. Energy use (kg oil equivalent) per $1 GDP (PPP) (IEA, World Bank)
28. Carbon dioxide emissions per capita (UNFCCC, UNSD) and consumption of ozone-depleting CFCs (ODP tons) (UNEP-Ozone Secretariat)
29. Proportion of population using solid fuels (WHO)
Target 10. Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation
Indicators
30. Proportion of population with sustainable access to an improved water source, urban and rural (UNICEF-WHO)
31. Proportion of population with access to improved sanitation, urban and rural (UNICEF-WHO)
Target 11. Have achieved by 2020 a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers
Indicators
32. Proportion of households with access to secure tenure (UN-HABITAT)
GOAL 8: DEVELOP A GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP FOR DEVELOPMENT
Target 12. Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, nondiscriminatory trading and financial system (includes a commitment to good governance, development, and poverty reduction - both nationally and internationally)
Target 13. Address the special needs of the Least Developed Countries (includes tariff- and quota-free access for Least Developed Countries? exports, enhanced program of debt relief for heavily indebted poor countries [HIPCs] and cancellation of official bilateral debt, and more generous official development assistance for countries committed to poverty reduction)
Target 14. Address the special needs of landlocked developing countries and small island developing states (through the Program of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States and 22nd General Assembly provisions)
Target 15. Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing countries through national and international measures in order to make debt sustainable in the long term
Indicators
Official development assistance (ODA)
33. Net ODA, total and to LDCs, as percentage of OECD/Development Assistance Committee (DAC) donors' gross national income (GNI)(OECD)
34. Proportion of total bilateral, sector-allocable ODA of OECD/DAC donors to basic social services (basic education, primary health care, nutrition, safe water and sanitation) (OECD)
35. Proportion of bilateral ODA of OECD/DAC donors that is untied (OECD)
36. ODA received in landlocked developing countries as a proportion of their GNIs (OECD)
37. ODA received in small island developing States as proportion of their GNIs (OECD)
Market access
38. Proportion of total developed country imports (by value and excluding arms) from developing countries and from LDCs, admitted free of duty (UNCTAD, WTO, WB)
39. Average tariffs imposed by developed countries on agricultural products and textiles and clothing from developing countries (UNCTAD, WTO, WB)
40. Agricultural support estimate for OECD countries as percentage of their GDP (OECD)
41. Proportion of ODA provided to help build trade capacity (OECD, WTO)
Debt sustainability
42. Total number of countries that have reached their Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative (HIPC) decision points and number that have reached their HIPC completion points (cumulative) (IMF - World Bank)
43. Debt relief committed under HIPC initiative (IMF-World Bank)
44. Debt service as a percentage of exports of goods and services (IMF-World Bank)
Some of the indicators listed below are monitored separately for the least developed countries, Africa, landlocked developing countries, and small island developing states
Target 16. In cooperation with developing countries, develop and implement strategies for decent and productive work for youth
Indicators
45. Unemployment rate of young people aged 15-24 years, each sex and total (ILO)
Target 17. In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to affordable essential drugs in developing countries
Indicators
46. Proportion of population with access to affordable essential drugs on a sustainable basis (WHO)
Target 18. In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications technologies
Indicators
47. Telephone lines and cellular subscribers per 100 population (ITU)
48. Personal computers in use per 100 population and Internet users per 100 population (ITU)
Tuesday, February 2, 2010
UNA-USA's Flow of Debate and MUN Glossary
The United Nations Association of the United States of America is a "nonprofit membership organization dedicated to building understanding of and support for the ideals and work of the UN among the American people". Its mission is to "educat[e], inspir[e] and mobiliz[e] Americans to support the principles and vital work of the United Nations, strengthen the United Nations system, promot[e] constructive United States leadership in that system and achiev[e] the goals of the United Nations Charter." The UNA-USA web site contains a plethora of information regarding the United Nations as an organization and Model UN as a simulation and can be used as a resource in delegate preparation by MUNers around the globe. The following information on the flow of debate and MUN terms comes from UNA-USA.
Flow of Debate
It is sometimes helpful to think of a Model UN conference as if it were a play in which delegates are the actors and Secretariat members are the directors. The storyline of a stage show is similar to what Model UNers call the “flow of debate” – the order in which events proceed during a Model UN conference. Just like scenes in a theatrical performance, debate unfolds in several different parts. The chart below shows the various stages of debate that take place during a Model UN simulation. Being familiar with how the action will proceed, from the first “scene” to the last, is an important way to prepare yourself for a Model UN conference.
Role Call
The Chairperson will announce each country’s name. After delegates hear their country, they should answer “present.”
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Setting the Agenda
When Model UN committees have more than one topic they can discuss, the body must set the agenda to begin working on one of these issues first. At this time, a delegate typically makes a motion, stating “The country of [country name] moves to place [topic area A] first on the agenda.” Some conferences will simply take a vote on this measure, but others will request delegates to speak in favor of and against the motion. The list of these speakers is called a “provisional speakers list.” Once all delegates on this list have addressed the committee, a vote is taken. Setting the agenda usually requires a simple majority vote.
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Debate
Formal Debate and Informal Debate
Formal debate revolves around the speakers list. The Chair begins by asking all delegates who would like to speak to raise their placards. The Chair then chooses delegates to be placed on the speakers list. A country can only be on the speakers list once, but delegates may add their country again after they have addressed the committee. Informal debate is divided into moderated and unmoderated caucuses. During moderated caucuses, the Chair calls on delegates one-by-one so that each can address the committee in short speeches. During unmoderated caucuses, the committee breaks for a temporary recess so that delegates can meet with each other and discuss ideas.
1a. When the session begins, speeches focus on stating country positions and offering recommendations for action.
1b. After several countries state their positions, the committee breaks for caucuses (often in blocs for now) to develop regional or group positions.
1b. After several countries state their positions, the committee breaks for caucuses (often in blocs for now) to develop regional or group positions.
2a. After blocs have met, speeches focus on describing bloc positions to the entire body
2b. Writing begins as countries work together to compose draft resolutions.
2b. Writing begins as countries work together to compose draft resolutions.
3a. Delegates now make statements describing their ideas to the committee.
3b. Countries and groups meet to gather support for specific ideas.
3b. Countries and groups meet to gather support for specific ideas.
4a. Delegates try to garner more support through formal speeches and invite others to offer their ideas.
4b. Delegates finalize draft resolutions.
4b. Delegates finalize draft resolutions.
5a. Delegates make statements supporting or disagreeing with specific draft resolutions.
5b. Draft-resolution sponsors build greater support for their resolution and look to incorporate others’ ideas through friendly amendments.
5b. Draft-resolution sponsors build greater support for their resolution and look to incorporate others’ ideas through friendly amendments.
6a. Delegates declare any amendments they have created.
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Close of Debate
Once the speakers list is exhausted, the committee automatically moves to voting. Also, once a delegate feels that his or her country’s position is clear to others and that there are enough draft resolutions on the floor, he or she may make a motion to proceed into voting procedure by moving for the closure of debate.
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Voting Procedures
Once a motion to close debate has been approved, the committee moves into voting procedure. Amendments are voted on first, then resolutions. Once all of the resolutions are voted on, the committee moves to the next topic on the agenda.
Model UN can be confusing to a beginner, not only because of the complexity of the issues and the pace of debate, but because of the strangeness of the language. At your first Model UN conference, you may not think that some of the delegates are speaking English, because of the weird terms they are using! To save you some confusion, UNA-USA has provided this cheat sheet of Model UN terminology. Look it over, and soon you'll be able to discuss quorums, preambulatory clauses, division of the question, and unmoderated caucuses with the best of them. Note that several of the terms below, including Secretariat and Secretary General, have different meanings in Model UN than they do in the real UN; you should familiarize yourself with both meanings.
NOTE: Rules of procedure vary greatly from Model UN conference to Model UN conference. Though these are the most common definitions of the terms below, do not be surprised if you see them used in a slightly different manner at some of the conferences you go to.
MUN Glossary
Abstain - During a vote on a substantive matter, delegates may abstain rather than vote yes or no. This generally signals that a state does not support the resolution being voted on, but does not oppose it enough to vote no.
Adjourn - All UN or Model UN sessions end with a vote to adjourn. This means that the debate is suspended until the next meeting. This can be a short time (e.g., overnight) or a long time (until next year's conference).
Agenda - The order in which the issues before a committee will be discussed. The first duty of a committee following the roll call is usually to set the agenda.
Amendment - A change to a draft resolution on the floor. Can be of two types: a "friendly amendment" is supported by the original draft resolution's sponsors, and is passed automatically, while an "unfriendly amendment" is not supported by the original sponsors and must be voted on by the committee as a whole.
Background guide - A guide to a topic being discussed in a Model UN committee usually written by conference organizers and distributed to delegates before the conference. The starting point for any research before a Model UN conference.
Binding - Having legal force in UN member states. Security Council resolutions are binding, as are decisions of the International Court of Justice; resolutions of the General Assembly and Economic and Social Council are not.
Bloc - A group of countries in a similar geographical region or with a similar opinion on a particular topic.
Caucus - A break in formal debate in which countries can more easily and informally discuss a topic. There are two types: moderated caucus and unmoderated caucus.
Chair - A member of the dais that moderates debate, keeps time, rules on points and motions, and enforces the rules of procedure. Also known as a Moderator.
Dais - The group of people, usually high school or college students, in charge of a Model UN committee. It generally consists of a Chair, a Director, and a Rapporteur.
Decorum - The order and respect for others that all delegates at a Model UN conference must exhibit. The Chair will call for decorum when he or she feels that the committee is not being respectful of a speaker, of the dais, or of their roles as ambassadors.
Delegate - A student acting as a representative of a member state or observer in a Model UN committee for a weekend.
Delegation - The entire group of people representing a member state or observer in all committees at a particular Model UN conference.
Director - A member of the dais that oversees the creation of working papers and draft resolutions, acts as an expert on the topic, makes sure delegates accurately reflect the policy of their countries, and ensures that decorum is maintained during caucuses.
Draft resolution - A document that seeks to fix the problems addressed by a Model UN committee. If passed by the committee, the draft resolution will become into a resolution.
Faculty Advisor - The faculty member in charge of a Model UN team, class or club.
Flow of debate - The order in which events proceed during a Model UN conference.
Gavel - The tool, shaped like a small wooden hammer, that the Chair uses to keep order within a Model UN committee. Many conferences give the gavel used in a committee to the delegate recognized by the dais as the best in that committee; therefore, the term is frequently used to refer to the award given to the best delegate, even in cases where no actual gavel is given.
Formal debate - The "standard" type of debate at a Model UN conference, in which delegates speak for a certain time in an order based on a speakers' list.
Head Delegate - The student leader of a Model UN club or team.
Member State - A country that has ratified the Charter of the United Nations and whose application to join has been accepted by the General Assembly and Security Council. Currently, there are 191 member states. The only internationally recognized state that is not a member state is the Holy See.
Moderated Caucus - A type of caucus in which delegates remain seated and the Chair calls on them one at a time to speak for a short period of time, enabling a freer exchange of opinions than would be possible in formal debate.
Moderator - See Chair.
Motion - A request made by a delegate that the committee as a whole do something. Some motions might be to go into a caucus, to adjourn, to introduce a draft resolution, or to move into voting bloc.
Observer - A state, national organization, regional organization, or non-governmental organization that is not a member of the UN but participates in its debates. Observers can vote on procedural matters but not substantive matters. An example is the Holy See.
On the floor - At a Model UN conference, when a working paper or draft resolution is first written, it may not be discussed in debate. After it is approved by the Director and introduced by the committee, it is put "on the floor" and may be discussed.
Operative clause - The part of a resolution which describes how the UN will address a problem. It begins with an action verb (decides, establishes, recommends, etc.).
Page - A delegate in a Model UN committee that has volunteered to pass notes from one delegate to another, or from a delegate to the dais, for a short period of time.
Placard - A piece of cardstock with a country's name on it that a delegate raises in the air to signal to the Chair that he or she wishes to speak.
Point - A request raised by a delegate for information or for an action relating to that delegate. Examples include a point of order, a point of inquiry, and a point of personal privilege.
Position Paper - A summary of a country's position on a topic, written by a delegate before a Model UN conference.
Preambulatory Clause - The part of a resolution that describes previous actions taken on the topic and reasons why the resolution is necessary. It begins with a participle or adjective (noting, concerned, regretting, aware of, recalling, etc.).
Procedural - Having to do with the way a committee is run, as opposed to the topic being discussed. All delegates present must vote on procedural matters and may not abstain.
Quorum - The minimum number of delegates needed to be present for a committee to meet. In the General Assembly, a quorum consists of one third of the members to begin debate, and a majority of members to pass a resolution. In the Security Council, no quorum exists for the body to debate, but nine members must be present to pass a resolution.
Rapporteur - A member of the dais whose duties include keeping the speakers' list and taking the roll call.
Resolution - A document that has been passed by an organ of the UN that aims to address a particular problem or issue. The UN equivalent of a law.
Right of Reply - A right to speak in reply to a previous speaker's comment, invoked when a delegate feels personally insulted by another's speech. Generally requires a written note to the Chair to be invoked.
Roll Call - The first order of business in a Model UN committee, during which the Rapporteur reads aloud the names of each member state in the committee. When a delegate's country's name is called, he or she may respond "present" or "present and voting." A delegate responding "present and voting" may not abstain on a substantive vote.
Rules of Procedure - The rules by which a Model UN committee is run.
Second - To agree with a motion being proposed. Many motions must be seconded before they can be brought to a vote.
Secretariat - The most senior staff of a Model UN conference.
Secretary General - The leader of a Model UN conference.
Signatory - A country that wishes a draft resolution to be put on the floor and signs the draft resolution to accomplish this. A signatory need not support a resolution; it only wants it to be discussed. Usually, Model UN conferences require some minimum number of sponsors and signatories for a draft resolution to be approved.
Simple majority - 50% plus one of the number of delegates in a committee. The amount needed to pass most votes.
Speakers' List - A list that determines the order in which delegates will speak. Whenever a new topic is opened for discussion, the Chair will create a speakers' list by asking all delegates wishing to speak to raise their placards and calling on them one at a time. During debate, a delegate may indicate that he or she wishes to be added to the speakers' list by sending a note to the dais.
Sponsor - One of the writers of a draft resolution. A friendly amendment can only be created if all sponsors agree.
Substantive - Having to do with the topic being discussed. A substantive vote is a vote on a draft resolution or amendment already on the floor during voting bloc. Only member states (not observer states or non-governmental organizations) may vote on substantive issues.
Unmoderated Caucus - A type of caucus in which delegates leave their seats to mingle and speak freely. Enables the free sharing of ideas to an extent not possible in formal debate or even a moderated caucus. Frequently used to sort countries into blocs and to write working papers and draft resolutions.
Working Paper - A document in which the ideas of some delegates on how to resolve an issue are proposed. Frequently the precursor to a draft resolution.
Veto - The ability, held by China, France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United States to prevent any draft resolution in the Security Council from passing by voting no.
Vote - A time at which delegates indicate whether they do or do not support a proposed action for the committee. There are two types: procedural and substantive.
Monday, February 1, 2010
How to Write a Resolution with Example
Resolutions
The final results of discussion, writing and negotiation are resolutions—written suggestions for addressing a specific problem or issue. Resolutions, which are drafted by delegates and voted on by the committee, normally require a simple majority to pass (except in the Security Council). Only Security Council resolutions can compel nations to take action. All other UN bodies use resolutions to make recommendations or suggestions for future action.
Draft resolutions are all resolutions that have not yet been voted on. Delegates write draft resolutions alone or with other countries. There are three main parts to a draft resolution: the heading, the preamble and the operative section. The heading shows the committee and topic along with the resolution number. It also lists the draft resolution’s sponsors and signatories (see below). Each draft resolution is one long sentence with sections separated by commas and semicolons. The subject of the sentence is the body making the statement (e.g., the General Assembly, Economic and Social Council, or Security Council). The preamble and operative sections then describe the current situation and actions that the committee will take.
Bringing a Resolution to the Floor for Debate
A draft resolution must always gain the support of a certain number of member states in the committee before the sponsors (the delegates who created the resolution) may submit it to the committee staff. Many conferences require signatures from 20 percent of the countries present in order to submit a draft resolution. A staff member will read the draft resolution to ensure that it is relevant and in proper format. Only when a staff member formally accepts the document and assigns it a number can it be referred to in formal debate.
In some cases a delegate must make a motion to introduce the draft resolution, while in other cases the sponsors are immediately called upon to read the document. Because these procedures can vary, it is essential to find out about the resolution process for the conference you plan to attend.
Preambulatory Clauses
The preamble of a draft resolution states the reasons for which the committee is addressing the topic and highlights past international action on the issue. Each clause begins with a present participle (called a preambulatory phrase) and ends with a comma. Preambulatory clauses can include
References to the UN Charter; Citations of past UN resolutions or treaties on the topic under discussion; Mentions of statements made by the Secretary-General or a relevant UN body or agency; Recognition of the efforts of regional or nongovernmental organizations in dealing with the issue; and General statements on the topic, its significance and its impact.
Examples:
Affirming
Alarmed by
Approving
Aware of
Bearing in mind
Believing
Confident
Contemplating
Convinced
Declaring
Deeply concerned
Deeply conscious
Deeply convinced
Deeply disturbed
Deeply regretting
Desiring
Emphasizing
Expecting
Expressing its appreciation
Expressing its satisfaction
Fulfilling
Fully alarmed
Fully aware
Fully believing
Further deploring
Further recalling
Guided by
Having adopted
Having considered
Having considered further
Having devoted attention
Having examined
Having heard
Having received
Having studied
Keeping in mind
Noting with regret
Noting with deep concern
Noting with satisfaction
Noting further
Noting with approval
Observing
Reaffirming
Realizing
Recalling
Recognizing
Referring
Seeking
Taking into account
Taking into consideration
Taking note
Viewing with appreciation
Welcoming
Operative Clauses
Operative clauses identify the actions or recommendations made in a resolution. Each operative clause begins with a verb (called an operative phrase) and ends with a semicolon. Operative clauses should be organized in a logical progression, with containing a single idea or proposal, and are always numbered. If a clause requires further explanation, bulleted lists set off by letters or roman numerals can also be used. After the last operative clause, the resolution ends in a period.
Examples:
Affirms
Approves
Authorizes
Calls
Calls upon
Condemns
Confirms
Congratulates
Considers
Declares accordingly
Deplores
Designates
Draws the attention
Emphasizes
Encourages
Endorses
Expresses its appreciation
Expresses its hope
Further invites
Deplores
Designates
Draws the attention
Emphasizes
Encourages
Endorses
Expresses its appreciation
Expresses its hope
Further invites
Further proclaims
Further reminds
Further recommends
Further requests
Further resolves
Has resolved
Notes
Proclaims
Reaffirms
Recommends
Regrets
Reminds
Requests
Solemnly affirms
Strongly condemns
Supports
Takes note of
Transmits
Trusts
CITATION: http://www.unausa.org/munpreparation/resolutions
Sponsors and Signatories
Sponsors of a draft resolution are the principal authors of the document and agree with its substance. Although it is possible to have only one sponsor, this rarely occurs at the UN, since countries must work together to create widely agreeable language in order for the draft resolution to pass. Sponsors control a draft resolution and only the sponsors can approve immediate changes.
Signatories are countries that may or may not agree with the substance of the draft resolution but still wish to see it debated so that they can propose amendments. A certain percentage of the committee must be either sponsors or signatories to a draft resolution in order for it to be accepted.
CITATION: http://www.unausa.org/munpreparation/resolutions/sponsors
Amendments
Approved draft resolutions are modified through amendments. An amendment is a written statement that adds, deletes or revises an operative clause in a draft resolution. The amendment process is used to strengthen consensus on a resolution by allowing delegates to change certain sections. There are two types of amendments.
A friendly amendment is a change to the draft resolution that all sponsors agree with. After the amendment is signed by all of the draft resolution’s sponsors and approved by the committee director or president, it will be automatically incorporated into the resolution.
An unfriendly amendment is a change that some or all of the draft resolution’s sponsors do not support and must be voted upon by the committee. The author(s) of the amendment will need to obtain a required number of signatories in order to introduce it (usually 20 percent of the committee). Prior to voting on the draft resolution, the committee votes on all unfriendly amendments.
Ultimately, resolutions passed by a committee represent a great deal of debate and compromise. They are the tangible results of hours if not days of Model UN debate. As a result, it is important to become familiar with the resolution process and practice drafting resolutions using the proper structure and wording.
CITATION: http://www.unausa.org/munpreparation/resolutions/amendments
Tips for Resolution Writing
Be sure to follow the format for resolutions provided by the conference organizers. Each conference may have a slightly different format.
Create a detailed resolution; For example, if your resolution calls for a new program, think about how it will be funded and what body will manage it.
Try to cite facts whenever possible.
Be realistic. Do not create objectives for your resolution that cannot be met. Make sure your body can take the action suggested. For example, the General Assembly can’t sanction another country – only the Security Council can do so.
Try to find multiple sponsors. Your committee will be more likely to approve the resolutions if many delegates contribute ideas.
Preambulatory clauses are historic justifications for action. Use them to cite past resolutions, precedents and statements about the purpose of action.
Operative clauses are policies that the resolution is designed to create. Use them to explain what the committee will do to address the issue.
CITATION: http://www.unausa.org/munpreparation/resolutions
Example of Resolution:
General Assembly Third Committee
Sponsors: United States, Austria and Italy
Signatories: Greece, Tajikistan, Japan, Canada, Mali, the Netherlands and Gabon
Topic: “Strengthening UN coordination of humanitarian assistance in complex emergencies”
The General Assembly,
Reminding all nations of the celebration of the 50th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which recognizes the inherent dignity, equality and inalienable rights of all global citizens, [use commas to separate preambulatory clauses]
Reaffirming its Resolution 33/1996 of 25 July 1996, which encourages Governments to work with UN bodies aimed at improving the coordination and effectiveness of humanitarian assistance,
Noting with satisfaction the past efforts of various relevant UN bodies and nongovernmental organizations,
Stressing the fact that the United Nations faces significant financial obstacles and is in need of reform, particularly in the humanitarian realm,
1. Encourages all relevant agencies of the United Nations to collaborate more closely with countries at the grassroots level to enhance the carrying out of relief efforts; [use semicolons to separate operative clauses]
2. Urges member states to comply with the goals of the UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs to streamline efforts of humanitarian aid;
3. Requests that all nations develop rapid deployment forces to better enhance the coordination of relief efforts of humanitarian assistance in complex emergencies;
4. Calls for the development of a United Nations Trust Fund that encourages voluntary donations from the private transnational sector to aid in funding the implementation of rapid deployment forces;
5. Stresses the continuing need for impartial and objective information on the political, economic and social situations and events of all countries;
6. Calls upon states to respond quickly and generously to consolidated appeals for humanitarian assistance; and
7. Requests the expansion of preventive actions and assurance of post-conflict assistance through reconstruction and development. [end resolutions with a period]
CITATION: http://www.unausa.org/munpreparation/resolutions/sample
The final results of discussion, writing and negotiation are resolutions—written suggestions for addressing a specific problem or issue. Resolutions, which are drafted by delegates and voted on by the committee, normally require a simple majority to pass (except in the Security Council). Only Security Council resolutions can compel nations to take action. All other UN bodies use resolutions to make recommendations or suggestions for future action.
Draft resolutions are all resolutions that have not yet been voted on. Delegates write draft resolutions alone or with other countries. There are three main parts to a draft resolution: the heading, the preamble and the operative section. The heading shows the committee and topic along with the resolution number. It also lists the draft resolution’s sponsors and signatories (see below). Each draft resolution is one long sentence with sections separated by commas and semicolons. The subject of the sentence is the body making the statement (e.g., the General Assembly, Economic and Social Council, or Security Council). The preamble and operative sections then describe the current situation and actions that the committee will take.
Bringing a Resolution to the Floor for Debate
A draft resolution must always gain the support of a certain number of member states in the committee before the sponsors (the delegates who created the resolution) may submit it to the committee staff. Many conferences require signatures from 20 percent of the countries present in order to submit a draft resolution. A staff member will read the draft resolution to ensure that it is relevant and in proper format. Only when a staff member formally accepts the document and assigns it a number can it be referred to in formal debate.
In some cases a delegate must make a motion to introduce the draft resolution, while in other cases the sponsors are immediately called upon to read the document. Because these procedures can vary, it is essential to find out about the resolution process for the conference you plan to attend.
Preambulatory Clauses
The preamble of a draft resolution states the reasons for which the committee is addressing the topic and highlights past international action on the issue. Each clause begins with a present participle (called a preambulatory phrase) and ends with a comma. Preambulatory clauses can include
References to the UN Charter; Citations of past UN resolutions or treaties on the topic under discussion; Mentions of statements made by the Secretary-General or a relevant UN body or agency; Recognition of the efforts of regional or nongovernmental organizations in dealing with the issue; and General statements on the topic, its significance and its impact.
Examples:
Affirming
Alarmed by
Approving
Aware of
Bearing in mind
Believing
Confident
Contemplating
Convinced
Declaring
Deeply concerned
Deeply conscious
Deeply convinced
Deeply disturbed
Deeply regretting
Desiring
Emphasizing
Expecting
Expressing its appreciation
Expressing its satisfaction
Fulfilling
Fully alarmed
Fully aware
Fully believing
Further deploring
Further recalling
Guided by
Having adopted
Having considered
Having considered further
Having devoted attention
Having examined
Having heard
Having received
Having studied
Keeping in mind
Noting with regret
Noting with deep concern
Noting with satisfaction
Noting further
Noting with approval
Observing
Reaffirming
Realizing
Recalling
Recognizing
Referring
Seeking
Taking into account
Taking into consideration
Taking note
Viewing with appreciation
Welcoming
Operative Clauses
Operative clauses identify the actions or recommendations made in a resolution. Each operative clause begins with a verb (called an operative phrase) and ends with a semicolon. Operative clauses should be organized in a logical progression, with containing a single idea or proposal, and are always numbered. If a clause requires further explanation, bulleted lists set off by letters or roman numerals can also be used. After the last operative clause, the resolution ends in a period.
Examples:
Affirms
Approves
Authorizes
Calls
Calls upon
Condemns
Confirms
Congratulates
Considers
Declares accordingly
Deplores
Designates
Draws the attention
Emphasizes
Encourages
Endorses
Expresses its appreciation
Expresses its hope
Further invites
Deplores
Designates
Draws the attention
Emphasizes
Encourages
Endorses
Expresses its appreciation
Expresses its hope
Further invites
Further proclaims
Further reminds
Further recommends
Further requests
Further resolves
Has resolved
Notes
Proclaims
Reaffirms
Recommends
Regrets
Reminds
Requests
Solemnly affirms
Strongly condemns
Supports
Takes note of
Transmits
Trusts
CITATION: http://www.unausa.org/munpreparation/resolutions
Sponsors and Signatories
Sponsors of a draft resolution are the principal authors of the document and agree with its substance. Although it is possible to have only one sponsor, this rarely occurs at the UN, since countries must work together to create widely agreeable language in order for the draft resolution to pass. Sponsors control a draft resolution and only the sponsors can approve immediate changes.
Signatories are countries that may or may not agree with the substance of the draft resolution but still wish to see it debated so that they can propose amendments. A certain percentage of the committee must be either sponsors or signatories to a draft resolution in order for it to be accepted.
CITATION: http://www.unausa.org/munpreparation/resolutions/sponsors
Amendments
Approved draft resolutions are modified through amendments. An amendment is a written statement that adds, deletes or revises an operative clause in a draft resolution. The amendment process is used to strengthen consensus on a resolution by allowing delegates to change certain sections. There are two types of amendments.
A friendly amendment is a change to the draft resolution that all sponsors agree with. After the amendment is signed by all of the draft resolution’s sponsors and approved by the committee director or president, it will be automatically incorporated into the resolution.
An unfriendly amendment is a change that some or all of the draft resolution’s sponsors do not support and must be voted upon by the committee. The author(s) of the amendment will need to obtain a required number of signatories in order to introduce it (usually 20 percent of the committee). Prior to voting on the draft resolution, the committee votes on all unfriendly amendments.
Ultimately, resolutions passed by a committee represent a great deal of debate and compromise. They are the tangible results of hours if not days of Model UN debate. As a result, it is important to become familiar with the resolution process and practice drafting resolutions using the proper structure and wording.
CITATION: http://www.unausa.org/munpreparation/resolutions/amendments
Tips for Resolution Writing
Be sure to follow the format for resolutions provided by the conference organizers. Each conference may have a slightly different format.
Create a detailed resolution; For example, if your resolution calls for a new program, think about how it will be funded and what body will manage it.
Try to cite facts whenever possible.
Be realistic. Do not create objectives for your resolution that cannot be met. Make sure your body can take the action suggested. For example, the General Assembly can’t sanction another country – only the Security Council can do so.
Try to find multiple sponsors. Your committee will be more likely to approve the resolutions if many delegates contribute ideas.
Preambulatory clauses are historic justifications for action. Use them to cite past resolutions, precedents and statements about the purpose of action.
Operative clauses are policies that the resolution is designed to create. Use them to explain what the committee will do to address the issue.
CITATION: http://www.unausa.org/munpreparation/resolutions
Example of Resolution:
General Assembly Third Committee
Sponsors: United States, Austria and Italy
Signatories: Greece, Tajikistan, Japan, Canada, Mali, the Netherlands and Gabon
Topic: “Strengthening UN coordination of humanitarian assistance in complex emergencies”
The General Assembly,
Reminding all nations of the celebration of the 50th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which recognizes the inherent dignity, equality and inalienable rights of all global citizens, [use commas to separate preambulatory clauses]
Reaffirming its Resolution 33/1996 of 25 July 1996, which encourages Governments to work with UN bodies aimed at improving the coordination and effectiveness of humanitarian assistance,
Noting with satisfaction the past efforts of various relevant UN bodies and nongovernmental organizations,
Stressing the fact that the United Nations faces significant financial obstacles and is in need of reform, particularly in the humanitarian realm,
1. Encourages all relevant agencies of the United Nations to collaborate more closely with countries at the grassroots level to enhance the carrying out of relief efforts; [use semicolons to separate operative clauses]
2. Urges member states to comply with the goals of the UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs to streamline efforts of humanitarian aid;
3. Requests that all nations develop rapid deployment forces to better enhance the coordination of relief efforts of humanitarian assistance in complex emergencies;
4. Calls for the development of a United Nations Trust Fund that encourages voluntary donations from the private transnational sector to aid in funding the implementation of rapid deployment forces;
5. Stresses the continuing need for impartial and objective information on the political, economic and social situations and events of all countries;
6. Calls upon states to respond quickly and generously to consolidated appeals for humanitarian assistance; and
7. Requests the expansion of preventive actions and assurance of post-conflict assistance through reconstruction and development. [end resolutions with a period]
CITATION: http://www.unausa.org/munpreparation/resolutions/sample
Article - "The Value of an MUN Education"
The Value of the Model United Nations Experience
©1996 Mary Beth Brennan
Summary.
What is a Model United Nations? | |
The Value of Simulating the UN | |
The Model United Nations Experience | |
Model UN Instruction Notes | |
The Model United Nations is a series of programs run throughout the country and the world with the goals of furthering understanding about the United Nations, educating participants about world issues and promoting peace and the work of the United Nations through cooperation and diplomacy. The value of the Model UN experience for a student is based on what benefits a student can gain from participation. Many different kinds of talents can be developed by participation in Model UN conferences - including such skills as teamwork, expository and persuasive writing, debating, and negotiation that are important for personal development and future success.
Definition of "Model UN"
The Model United Nations is a series of programs run throughout the country and the world with the goals of furthering understanding about the United Nations, educating participants about world issues and promoting peace and the work of the United Nations through cooperation and diplomacy.
Students gather in groups of 15 to over 1000 to simulate member states representation in the bodies of the United Nations. Smaller simulations usually are of the Security Council and last several hours. Larger groups are held in convention centers, simulate many bodies of the UN concurrently and last several days. More than 160 Model UN conferences are held globally involving approximately 100,000 students each year.
Simulations at large conferences usually include several of the six committees of the General Assembly. These committees each have a different topic they specialize in for debates. Conferences may also simulate councils other than the Security Council, such as the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC.) They might also simulate any number of special committees the General Assembly has mandated in the past years including the Economic and Finance Committee (ECOFIN) or the International Atomic Energy Association (IAEA.) Conferences sometimes simulate the International Court of Justice (ICJ) or a historical Security Council body reconstructing an especially turbulent year of history.
History of Model UN
The Model UN started as the Model League of Nations Assembly. In 1947 the Model League of Nations Assembly made the transition the League of Nations had made in 1945 and became the Model United Nations Assembly. The Model UN program, like its forerunner, has traditionally been a student-driven organization. The program has been and remains a collection of independent conferences. In the 1980's an important organizing force, the United Nations Association of the USA, (UNA-USA) recognized the momentum of the Model UN programs and founded its Model UN and Youth Department to coordinate and track the development of the Model UN on a global level. (Muldoon, 1995)
Goals
The purpose of the Model UN is to provide an interactive educational experience that teaches in an interesting and enjoyable way about the United Nations. The process affords participants an understanding of how the process of international debate and negotiation that we commonly call diplomacy functions. The simulation of the diplomatic processes are especially important in this post-Cold War period when the world is quickly becoming more interdependent. In this interdependent world, Model UN makes for informed global citizens who not only understand the decisions their nation makes but also how those changes effect politics nationally, regionally, and globally.
Determining the Value of the United Nations
The value of Model United Nations - simulating the United Nations - must certainly be determined in great part by the value of the United Nations itself. The United Nations' value as an international organization is evaluated by many people toward a number of different ends. Academics attempt to apply political science models to its workings to define it and it’s impact on member states. Politicians confer differing value upon it dependant on the day and issue being discussed. Despite these differing evaluations, the true worth of the United Nations can be determined by simply analyzing the continuing existence of the United Nations as an important world body.
The Dedication of the World Community
The United Nations has the dedication of its member states. This dedication is due to recognition by member states that the role of the UN is “to provide governments with the ability to do together what they cannot achieve separately.” (Carlsson, p.2) Member states realize that the expanding problems of a planet know no national boundaries and understand that poverty, disease and pollution are a few of the plagues affecting citizens of all states. Some policies (official or non-official) of member states do not agree with the stated community goals of the UN. However, all members choose to remain members of the UN despite their differences - demonstrating the importance nations place on the institution. Theories on why states participate are gaining a new focus on the emerging global community and placing less emphasis on the state.
The Valuable Work of the United Nations
Many times unrealistic expectations are set for the UN by those outside the organization, while the reality of the excellent work performed by the world body goes unnoticed. As Richard Falk notes, "the U.N. is a complex actor with multiple roles that have growing importance in many domains of international life ... despite this diversity, the overriding test of U.N. success or failure focuses on its handling of peace and security challenges." (p. 626) Peace and security is an important part of what we can expect the UN to do but, misinformation or lack of information should not be a reason for ignoring the other valuable work that occupies the majority of the UN’s time.
Peacekeeping and Enforcement
Peacekeeping is just one part of the complex process of conflict resolution. With the super power conflict concluded, the face of UN peace keeping is changing as the world looks to the UN to intervene in greater numbers of more complex conflicts. The end of this period of East-West hostilities has dramatically changed the security landscape of the world, removing "the lid and permitting the explosion of violence and civil wars." (Weiss, et.al., p. 83) To deal with these new crises, the Security Council is moving away from its traditional role in conflicts between states, and moving into disputes which would previously have been classified as purely internal problems.
Although some recent peace keeping missions have been less than successful, the UN's record throughout the years has been exemplary in keeping the peace between warring parties who have attained a cease fire, but are still in conflict. Situations around the world, including Cyprus and the Middle East are testament to this, as well as the UN's role in making peace in the Korean and Iraq/Kuwait conflicts. Finally, many Cold War battles were fought at the UN, instead of on a battlefield. The UN's role in preventing any world-wide conflict since World War II cannot be overlooked.
Peacekeeping was not originally intended to be a duty of the United Nations. It is not mentioned in the Charter of the organization and today is deployed and mandated entirely by the Security Council. It is however, based on fundamental principles of the UN Charter such as consent by all parties to the conflict, the neutrality of peacekeeping troops, and the use of force only in self-defense or to protect the mandate of the operation. (Boutros-Ghali, p. 404) The security council has recently extended the bounds of peacekeeping missions to include peace enforcement. Peace enforcement is used when peaceful means fail and the international peace and security is threatened as determined by the Security Council. Peace enforcement includes whatever measures the Security Council deems necessary to control the conflict and prevent escalation into the international arena.
Humanitarian Aid and Development
United Nations agencies have helped ease hunger and starvation in many parts of the world. The UN is the major provider and coordinator of humanitarian aid in the world. Between the estimated 23 million displaced persons forced to leave their own countries and the additional estimated 19 million refugees fleeing over international borders, the UN has responsibilities to over 40 million people whose lives are disrupted by war, repression and natural disaster. (Boutros-Ghali, p. 404)
Development relates to the UN mission in more than a simply humanitarian way. Development relates to all members of the global community, rich or poor, because it is undeniably tied to international peace and security. Without development on the widest scale, including not only resources but also social, educational and environmental development, “the young will be restless, resentful, and unproductive. People will understandably fight for resources, and creativity will be misdirected.” (Boutros-Ghali, p. 405)
Human Rights
The UN has been a constant proponent of human rights, convincing governments to recognize the rights of their citizens and establishing international awareness of the worst human rights violations. The UN Charter, signed in 1945, opened a new era of human rights awareness. It opened internal human rights issues to the scrutiny of the international eye. “In seven different references to human rights the Charter declares the promotion of human rights to be one of the basic purposes of the United Nations and specifies the responsibilities of major organs for implementing this goal.” (Bennett, p. 372) To this end, the UN General Assembly passed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.
The United Nations is a valuable organization as it brings together diverse members of an increasingly interdependent world to make collective decisions for the betterment of all. The worth of the United Nations can also be determined by merely analyzing the continuing existence of the United Nations as a world body. The United Nations has the dedication of its member states, this dedication is due to recognition by member states that the role of the UN is to provide a forum for negotiation among interdependant states. Member states realize that the expanding problems of a planet know no national boundaries and choose to utilize the UN to discuss them and attempt to regulate and even solve them. They further recognize the UN as a unique environment where problems can be discussed and the world’s best minds meet. It is evident that the UN will grow in the post-Cold War years as its member’s demands upon it grow. The mere fact that it exists and will continue to exist shows that the United Nations is a valuable resource for the world.
Many times unrealistic expectations are set for the UN by those outside the organization, while the reality of the excellent work performed by the world body goes unnoticed. Those unrealistic expectations are where Model United Nations programs come in. As a simulation of the United Nations and as a forum for discussion of world issues, students gain a unique knowledge of how the international system works. Model United Nations programs have the special, unique capability to educate tomorrow’s world leaders and world citizens.
Experiential Learning
"Student receptivity and the demonstrated pedagogical value of experiential learning or 'learning-by-doing,' has resulted in the growing use of simulations and games in the field of international relations." (Hazletin and Mahurin, p. 149)
In this "learning-by-doing" approach students can, through the Model UN program, be involved in the vital decisions made in the international affairs arena by diplomats and world-leaders daily. This first hand involvement leads to a deeper understanding of world issues and the context these issues are negotiated and resolved within.
Cooperative Learning
Research concludes that the Model UN environment, as a cooperative learning center, is a valuable education tool. Cooperative learning promotes higher achievement, greater motivation, more positive interpersonal relations among students, more positive attitudes toward the subject area and teacher, greater self esteem and psychological health, more accurate perspectives, and greater social skills. (Johnson and Johnson, 1988)
In simulating the actual workings of the UN, the Model UN provides an essential feature of the cooperative learning environment. In preparing to go to a Model UN, each student becomes an “expert” in one aspect of an issue or policy for their delegation. At conference all the “experts” from different delegations gather in a subcommittee to discuss their issue. The “experts” then return to their delegation in a plenary session and teach the others what they have learned. This feature is part of the cooperative learning environment where students working together to accomplish shared goals are given two responsibilities: to learn the assigned materials and make sure that all other members of the group do likewise. (Johnson and Johnson, 1988)
Multicultural Education
In 1983 Montgomery and Diehl wrote, “Based in UN policy-making bodies and issues, these games can help students break out of their own prejudices and appreciate the frustration felt by members who perceive developed nations as controlling economic growth and arresting change.” A decade later, multicultural requirements were in the process of being installed in most universities. Model UN fulfills the objectives of multicultural education as stated by James Banks, “the major theorists and researchers in multicultural education agree that the movement is designed to restructure educational institutions so that all students, including middle-class white males, will acquire the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to function effectively in a culturally and ethnically diverse nation and world.” (1993)
Future - Focused Skills
Through this hands-on approach the more than 100,000 students who participate in Model UN throughout each year gain a global perspective on world problems, leadership, speaking, writing and teamwork skills they can apply to their future lives. The nature of this active involvement in learning allows students to witness the consequences of their decisions and actions.
Beyond the verbal and writing skills students gain, Model UN can contribute to the mental development of students. They can expand both cognitive ability and subject matter tolerance. In practical terms, self-confidence of students in having participated in a large group and awareness of political issues will certainly increase.
Who Benefits?
Model UN offers opportunities for anyone who wants to learn about the processes of international diplomacy. Each country represented at a conference needs a diverse delegation to be successful. To succeed the delegation will need to have followers as well as leaders, researchers to determine a national policy, writers to convey the country’s position and speakers to present and support that position to the body.
The teamwork needed to prepare a good delegation is excellent experience for students who work mostly on papers and tests in college but are expected to function as team members in a work force. This is one aspect of Model UN that is valuable to business school students. The communication and negotiation aspects of Model UN should also be considered by some non-traditional majors as justification for attending a Model UN.
Model UN is not a program just for International Affairs or Political Science students. The broad nature of the skills learned cut across nearly all majors and it is valuable for any major if the student has an interest in the functions of international negotiation and policy-making. Former Secretary-General Daj Hammarskjold stated: "everything will be all right when people stop thinking of the United Nations as a weird Picasso abstraction and see it as a drawing they made themselves." (Childers, p. 8) A first step in the process of understanding that will lead to a clearer understanding of the UN is education.
Educator Preparation
Without well-prepared background materials, students are likely to stumble through what could have been an exceptional and memorable learning experience. An instructor preparing a delegation to attend an established Model United Nations Conference should do several things to help ensure a positive learning experience for their students. These include researching a workable curriculum format for their proposed plan of study that includes a comprehensive preparation for rules and procedures, country background and information, resolution drafting and verbal resolution support and, most importantly, background in the United Nations functions and international diplomacy. This preparation should also include researching the program and staff of each conference being considered, and researching the proper type of country for their group to represent.
Due to the diverse nature of the many conferences held across the country and the world, programs vary greatly in size, educational goals and overall professionalism. Staffs of Model UN conferences are generally composed of undergraduates who have been participants in Model UN programs in the past. These staffs will vary greatly as volunteer organizations do and one should look for a conference run by knowledgeable staffers who have been educated about the educational philosophy and purpose of the Model UN as well as the actual logistics of running a conference. Montgomery and Diehl suggest that all other things being equal “(1) programs that have fairly well-articulated educational goals are preferable to those that do not; (2) programs that develop and distribute detailed preparation materials are superior to those that do not; (3) Model UN programs that do not emphasize competition are generally more accurate and educational than those that do.” (p. 366) Their final point about competition is important for a realistic simulation because if students feel pressure from you or from their delegation to win awards they are more likely to do things that are out of character for the country you are representing, making the simulation less realistic for everyone.
Attending an established conference is beneficial to students because they are exposed to the broad variety of simulated bodies of the UN. It is a danger inherent in classroom simulations that students walk away thinking the United Nations as a whole and the Security Council are one and the same thing and function in the same way. Attending an established conference can often be cost prohibitive, but it is an experience worth the efforts to establish funding. Therefore, one should also include costs in their research of specific conferences. Travel and lodging can be cost prohibitive enough, one should look for a conference with good arrangements for lodging and reasonable fees so as not to be more cost prohibitive than necessary. Model UN is an experience worth self-funding if institutional support is not available, to that end a fund raising guide is attached as an addendum. A good place to begin your research for a conference is with the United Nations Association of the USA (UNA-USA.) They publish a Model UN calendar that lists the conferences held nationally and internationally.
Student Preparation
Members of extracurricular clubs obviously have self-motivation to succeed at a Model UN conference. Class members often need extra motivation from an instructor who can steer them toward a solid basis of knowledge about the issues before the United Nations. A student benefits most from participation in a Model UN Conference when he is able to go to the conference confidant that he has a solid knowledge of the issues that will be discussed. It is important that a student have a solid understanding of her country’s position in these issues as well. If a student comes to a conference lacking these fundamentals she will likely be able to pick up what she has missed along the way at the expense of the real learning experience - multilateral diplomacy in action. Hazleton and Mahurin note “the simulation takes on a different focus for the more prepared students as they are better able to assume their ‘roles’ and actually engage in the ‘practice’ of international diplomacy.” (p. 165) To this end, it is most important that the student be prepared to learn about the workings of diplomacy and the UN by being able to realistically portray their country at conference.
Notes for Part I - What is a Model UN?
Muldoon, James, P. "The Model United Nations Revisited." Simulation and Gaming. March 1995. pp. 27-35.
Notes and references for Part II - The Value of Simulating the UN
Bennett, A. Leroy. International Organizations: Principles and Issues (Fifth Edition). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 1991.
Boutros-Ghali, Boutros. "The United Nations and the New Global Challenges." Social Education. Vol. 58, no. 7, November/December 1994, pp.403-406.
Carlsson, Ingvar. "The UN at 50: A Time to Reform." Foreign Policy. Fall 1995. pp.1-11
Falk, Richard. "Appraising the U.N. at 50: The Looming Challenge." Journal of International Affairs.
Weiss, Thomas G., Forsythe, David P. And Coate, Roger A. The United Nations and Changing World Politics. Boulder/San Francisco/Oxford: Westview Press. 1994.
Notes for Part III - The Model United Nations Experience
Banks, J. "Multicultural Education: Development, Dimensions, and Challenges." Phi Delta Kappan.
Childers, Erskine. "The UN at 50: Midlife Crisis." The London Review of Books. Aug. 18, 1994, pp 8-11.
Hazleton, William A. and Mahurin, Ronald P. "External Simulations as Teaching Devices." Simulation and Games. June 1986. pp. 149-171.
Johnson, D.W. and Johnson, R.T. "Unleash the Power of Cooperative Learning." The School Administrator. March 1988. pp. 21-24.
Montgomery, Michael and Diehl, Paul F. "Game Review." Simulation and Games. September 1983. pp. 363-366
United Nations Association of the USA. "Calendar of Model UN Conferences." Published yearly. Materials may be obtained by contacting UNA-USA at 485 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10017, USA.
Notes and references for Part IV - Model UN Instruction
Hazleton, William A. and Mahurin, Ronald P. "External Simulations as Teaching Devices." Simulation and Games. June 1986. pp. 149-171.
Montgomery, Michael and Diehl, Paul F. "Game Review." Simulation and Games. September 1983. pp. 363-366.
United Nations Association of the USA. "Calendar of Model UN Conferences." Published yearly. Materials may be obtained by contacting UNA-USA at 485 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10017, USA.
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